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| Ritual and Music |
| Bronze wares and
jade objects were highly valued, since the materials for
making them were not easily accessible and the processes
of craftsmanship (casting and grinding) were extremely
difficult. The bronzes and jades displayed in a ritual
ceremony and in sets excavated from tombs carried on the
essence of "ritual" and "music", bridging the realms of
life and death. In fact, it was Confucius who said, "Treat
the living with rituals; and bury and worship the deceased
with rituals as well."
By the time of the early Shang, bronze wine vessels
and food containers began to appear in sets. They matured
further in the late Shang. For example, sets of food
containers ("ting", "yen", "li",
"kuei ", and "tou"), wine vessels
("ku", "chüeh", "chi", "chia",
"lei", "p'ou", "tsun", and
"you"), and water containers ("yü"
and "p'an") were commonly seen. These bronze
wares were the most representative ritual objects in
the system of rites. Meanwhile, the jade objects "pi",
"ts'ung", "kuei", and "chang"
followed in the legacy of functional ritual objects
from the late Neolithic period, so that they became
items imbued with the divine and souls of the spirit-ancestors,
while at the same time becoming "auspicious objects"
signifying the status of the worshipper.
On bronze and jade objects, the "t'ao-t'ieh"
(or animal-mask), phoenix, and one-legged monster ("k'uei-lung
wen") patterns are often found. Gradually, they
were transformed into elegant designs with protruding
horns and varying combinations of the dragon-phoenix
and animal mask conceived to plead to the gods and ancestors.
The elaborate forms and intricate decoration lifted
the art of Chinese bronzes to unprecedented levels.
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| Ritual and Warfare |
Ritual
The ritual items of each clan shed light on both the importance
of rituals in the Shang and Chou dynasties as well as
the court position to which each clan was assigned. Examples
of such include the bronze vessels of the Ya-ch'ou clan
as well as the bronze "tsun" and seal of the
Ya-ch'in clan in the late Shang; the Tso-ts'e-ta "fang-ting"
and Ling "fang tsun" of the Niao-ping-ts'e clan
in the early Western Chou (ca. 1046-977 B.C.E.); and the
Chou-chang "hu" and Chou-hu "yu" of
a clan in the middle Western Chou. The ritual items of
these clans reveal the artisans' efforts at being able
to honor clan ancestors, record achievements, and receive
rewards. At the same time, they were paying respects and
expressing filial piety toward ancestors as well as wishing
descendants to preserve the family tradition. |
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Ya-ch'ou
square "ku"
Late Yin period, 13th-11th century
B.C.E. |
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Warfare
Rituals represent a conversation between the living and
deceased over a certain period of time, while warfare
is the battle of life and death between enemies at a particular
place.
Weapons (such as shields, daggers, axes, and battleaxes)
were not only instruments used in warfare, but they
also became ritual objects used in ceremonies held at
the outbreak of a war in order to beseech the blessings
of ancestors.
Of all the concerns of a state, the production of weapons
was absolutely indispensable.
The skillfully made weapons of bronze and jade shown
here represented the exalted rank and elevated status
of the owner. The inscriptions on these weapons are
also records of historical rituals and previous battles.
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"Yüeh"
axe inlaid with an animal mask in turquoise
Late Shang dynasty, 13th-11th
century B.C.E. |
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| Virtue Comparable to Jade |
| The concept behind the saying,
"The virtue of a gentleman should be like that of jade,"
has its roots in the Neolithic period and matured in the
Eastern Chou, Ch'in (221-207 B.C.E.), and Han dynasty
(206 B.C.E-220 C.E.) periods. In fact, regardless of whether
jades served as auspicious objects or decorative pieces
to reflect the status of a member of the nobility, or
whether jades were admired by the living or used to accompany
the deceased, the virtue and beauty of jade had always
been associated with the aristocracy in China, forming
a unique culture of reverence for jades among the Chinese
people.
With respect to function, jades of the Shang and Chou
can be categorized into ritual, ornamental, and funerary
objects.
Ritual jades consist of the "pi", "ts'ung",
"kuei", "chang" and "ping".
Jade weapons include the "ch'i", "fu",
"yüeh", and "ko", also including the
auspicious flat and pointed "kuei", indicating
the status of an aristocrat. That is the reason why
the "ko" and "pi" as well as "yüeh"
and "pi" have often found in "kuei"
and "pi" sets by archaeologists.
Jade accessories that were commonly worn include the
"huang" (strung with different beads) and ladder-shaped
(strung with beads, larval forms, and "ko")
ornament sets. Occasionally, there are jade ornaments
with dragon-and-phoenix, human-face, and various other
animal designs. The jade sets that prevailed among the
upper levels of society at the time are called "ornaments
of virtue" in historical documents, alluding to the
high social status and noble position of the wearer.
The jade sets of facial coverings used in burial were
the predecessors of funerary pieces of jade clothing
used in the Han dynasty. Moreover, jade fish and silkworms
were either strung together for funerals or placed in
the mouth of the deceased. All these jade objects demonstrate
the ancient reverence for the virtue associated with
jade by the Chinese.
In bronze inscriptions, jade is mentioned mainly for
rewards, conferring nobility, formal meetings, tributes,
and sacrifices. The jades mentioned in inscriptions
on the Hsien-chi "kuei", Sung "ting",
Shih-sung "kuei", and Mao-kung "ting"
bronze vessels reveal that the aristocracy employed
a ritual system in which jade and silk played crucial
roles and that the virtue of a true gentleman was likened
to the resilient purity of jade.
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Set of jade pendants
Western Chou period (1046-771 B.C.E.) |
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| Eternal Mandate |
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"Kuei"
vessel with a square base and phoenix design
Early Western Chou period, 11th-10th
century B.C.E. |
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The ancient
"Book of Poetry" states, "Although Chou
is an old state, its mandate persists like new."
The Chou people established a new kingdom on the
basis of its family regulations and distribution
of feudal titles.
The bronzes of the early Western Chou inherited
the artistic styles from the late Shang, but they
gradually changed and were completely different
by the middle Chou. In the early Western Chou, a
host of new vessels, shapes, and designs appeared.
The form and style of writing in the inscriptions
on bronzes was also distinct from those of earlier
stages. During the late Western Chou, the number
of feudal states making their own bronze vessels
increased, leading to the emergence of regional
styles in the Eastern Chou. New designs of large
curled-tail phoenixes and tile patterning developed
in the middle Western Chou. In the late Western
Chou, "t'ao-t'ieh" mask patterns were transformed
to yield new curved-hook, horizontal-scale, and
descending-scale designs. During this period, the
"chüeh", "chia", and "ku"
wine vessels disappeared as the "kuei",
"fu", "hsü", and "p'u"
food containers increased in number, a change denoting
the Chou concern for food in its new mandate for
governing the land.
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| The Richness of Chou Culture |
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Mao-kung
"ting"
Late Western Chou period, 9th century-771
B.C.E. |
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Polished bronze
has a golden hue, which is why the term for inscriptions
on bronzes is known in Chinese as "chin wen"
(literally "golden writing"), an important characteristic
of Chinese bronzes.
Besides the themes of bronze inscriptions dealing
with the worship of ancestors and wishes for descendants
to treasure the vessels, other texts cast on bronzes
provide first-hand material on war records, dowry
and arranged marriages, mandates and ceremonies,
cessions of land and treaties, as well as admonitions
and awards. These offer actual records and the language
of the period, like an unadulterated original version
of the ancient "Book of Documents" opened
before one's eyes. These historical documents from
the ancients are all included in these inscriptions.
While reading "chin wen", one can almost
feel the presence of the ancients and hear them
communicating.
Bronze inscriptions also reveal the high art
of writing at the time, even though the characters
have undergone transformation from being written
down initially to their engraving on mold pieces
and casting in bronze. The writing style was bold
and sturdy from the Shang to early Chou period.
It then became more orderly in the middle Western
Chou. During the late Western Chou and early Spring
and Autumn period (ca. 770~671 B.C.E.), it become
rounded and delicate in the form of large seal
script. Bronzes with long inscriptions increased
during the middle and late Western Chou, attesting
to the richness and prosperity of Chou as manifested
in its bronze wares.
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| Hegemons and Warlords |
| In the Eastern Chou
period, the royal power of the Chou court declined along
with its art and rituals. In the political realm, groups
of hegemons contended with each other, whereby the strong
trampled the weak and the many crushed the few. With respect
to rites, increasingly extravagant and excessive funerals
appeared, overstepping rightful places in society and
ignoring the inherited placement of nobility. Aristocrats
competed with one another and out of the contest emerged
technical innovation and artistic originality in the works
produced under their patronage.
Art and rituals gradually moved from the provenance
of kings to that of lords and nobles, and eventually
even to that of officers of high rank. This gave rise
to increasing developments in ritual and musical bronze
instruments, vehicles and weapons of war, seals, royal
seals and currencies, and objects of pottery, bone,
and jade.
However, underlying this evolution of material culture
was a spiritual one, in which various philosophers and
authors were engaged in eager debate. Confucianism and
Taoism were founded at this time, and the splendid spiritual
culture that arose echoed the pluralistic and versatile
objects used at the time.
The spread of knowledge also stimulated an increasing
social consciousness among the people along with the
themes dealing with realism. This turbulent era of political
chaos, with five hegemons and seven warlords dominating
the land, was shaped in spirit and material by both
the extravagance of the aristocracy and the simplicity
of ordinary people.
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| Golden Glittering |
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"Fang"
vessel with hunting décor
Early Warring States period, 5th-3rd
century B.C.E. |
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Back in the
Shang dynasty, craftsmen had already fully mastered
the technique of attaching jade, minerals, or other
metals to newly cast golden bronzes, creating a
glittering effect. In the wake of developments in
bronze-casting techniques starting in the late Western
Chou, new works of art with a variety of materials
were created.
From the piece-mold method of the Shang to the lost-wax
technique of the Eastern Chou, bronze craftsmanship
grew increasingly sophisticated and mass production
was made possible. For example, the techniques of
inlaid copper and turquoise, gold and silver filigree,
and gilding, combined with coiled-snake and coiled-dragon
designs popular at the time, pushed the art of bronze
decoration to new heights.
Outstanding works of art were created by designated
craftsmen and workshops. Certain weapons were even
carved with the names of their manufacturers. Neatly
done inscriptions not only reveal the beauty of
writing from different regions, they also provide
indirect evidence of the advent of iron tools for
such carving needs. The Bronze Age thus gradually
drew to a close.
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| A Multicultural Flair |
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"Chien"
dagger with double-ringed pommel
Late Spring and Autumn to middle Warring
States period, 8th to 3rd century B.C.E. |
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Various kinds
of interchange between the Chinese and other tribes
around the Central Plains heartland go back to the
Shang dynasty. Under such influences, bronzes emerged
with their own lively shapes and unique forms of
decoration.
This multicultural flair lasted throughout the late
Shang, Western Chou, and the Spring and Autumn and
Warring States (ca. 475~221 B.C.E.) period. As cultures
varied from tribe to tribe, each constructed its
own "dialect" in bronze with individual
styles and characteristics. These societies were
scattered throughout the North (Hopeh, Inner Mongolia,
Ning-hsia, Tung-pei), Pa-shu (Szechwan), Tien (Yünnan),
Hunan, and Kwangtung and Kwangsi. Some of these
bronzes were influenced by the styles of the Central
Plains via exchange, while others remained purely
on their own, reflecting individual regional styles.
In the study of ancient societies, the cultural
legacy of bronzes certainly plays an important role.
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| Remnants of the Empire |
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Ch'in
measure
Ch'in dynasty (221-207 B.C.E.) |
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The Ch'in
people were originally from China's western frontiers
and rose to power after the early Spring and Autumn
period. Established on the old site of the Chou
dynasty, the area around Kuan-chung in Shensi, the
Ch'in was heavily influenced by Western Chou culture
and thus able to preserve their traditional bronze
styles and writing forms.
The individual style of the Ch'in gradually took
shape after the middle of the Spring and Autumn
period. However, the extent of change was small
when compared to that of the other six states at
the time.
At the end of the Warring States period, the Ch'in
had succeeded in uniting all the states. As a result,
the garlic-head vase unique to the Ch'in grew in
popularity. A monumental stele with an inscribed
imperial mandate recorded the standardization of
lengths, capacities, and weights throughout the
country. However, like the imperial seals of Ch'in,
they vanished in the ashes of the empire shortly
thereafter.
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