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▌Exhibit Themes

Ritual and Music

Bronze wares and jade objects were highly valued, since the materials for making them were not easily accessible and the processes of craftsmanship (casting and grinding) were extremely difficult. The bronzes and jades displayed in a ritual ceremony and in sets excavated from tombs carried on the essence of "ritual" and "music", bridging the realms of life and death. In fact, it was Confucius who said, "Treat the living with rituals; and bury and worship the deceased with rituals as well."

By the time of the early Shang, bronze wine vessels and food containers began to appear in sets. They matured further in the late Shang. For example, sets of food containers ("ting", "yen", "li", "kuei ", and "tou"), wine vessels ("ku", "chüeh", "chi", "chia", "lei", "p'ou", "tsun", and "you"), and water containers ("yü" and "p'an") were commonly seen. These bronze wares were the most representative ritual objects in the system of rites. Meanwhile, the jade objects "pi", "ts'ung", "kuei", and "chang" followed in the legacy of functional ritual objects from the late Neolithic period, so that they became items imbued with the divine and souls of the spirit-ancestors, while at the same time becoming "auspicious objects" signifying the status of the worshipper.

On bronze and jade objects, the "t'ao-t'ieh" (or animal-mask), phoenix, and one-legged monster ("k'uei-lung wen") patterns are often found. Gradually, they were transformed into elegant designs with protruding horns and varying combinations of the dragon-phoenix and animal mask conceived to plead to the gods and ancestors.

The elaborate forms and intricate decoration lifted the art of Chinese bronzes to unprecedented levels.

P'an with dragon design Late Shang Dynasty ca. 13th to 11th century B.C.E

Pendant with dragon head and phoenix design Late Shang Dynasty ca.13th to 11th century B.C.E.

Ritual and Warfare

Ritual

The ritual items of each clan shed light on both the importance of rituals in the Shang and Chou dynasties as well as the court position to which each clan was assigned. Examples of such include the bronze vessels of the Ya-ch'ou clan as well as the bronze "tsun" and seal of the Ya-ch'in clan in the late Shang; the Tso-ts'e-ta "fang-ting" and Ling "fang tsun" of the Niao-ping-ts'e clan in the early Western Chou (ca. 1046-977 B.C.E.); and the Chou-chang "hu" and Chou-hu "yu" of a clan in the middle Western Chou. The ritual items of these clans reveal the artisans' efforts at being able to honor clan ancestors, record achievements, and receive rewards. At the same time, they were paying respects and expressing filial piety toward ancestors as well as wishing descendants to preserve the family tradition.

Ya-ch'ou square kuei Late Shang Dynasty ca. 13th to 11th century B.C.E

Ya-ch'ou square ku Late Shang Dynasty ca. 13th to 11th century B.C.E

Warfare

Rituals represent a conversation between the living and deceased over a certain period of time, while warfare is the battle of life and death between enemies at a particular place.

Weapons (such as shields, daggers, axes, and battleaxes) were not only instruments used in warfare, but they also became ritual objects used in ceremonies held at the outbreak of a war in order to beseech the blessings of ancestors.

Of all the concerns of a state, the production of weapons was absolutely indispensable.

The skillfully made weapons of bronze and jade shown here represented the exalted rank and elevated status of the owner. The inscriptions on these weapons are also records of historical rituals and previous battles.

Ko dagger with bird decor Early Western Chou Dynasty ca. 11th to 10th century B.C.E.

Yüeh axe inlaid with an animal mask in turquoise Late Shang Dynasty ca. 13th to 11th century B.C.E.

Virtue Comparable to Jade

The concept behind the saying, "The virtue of a gentleman should be like that of jade," has its roots in the Neolithic period and matured in the Eastern Chou, Ch'in (221-207 B.C.E.), and Han dynasty (206 B.C.E-220 C.E.) periods. In fact, regardless of whether jades served as auspicious objects or decorative pieces to reflect the status of a member of the nobility, or whether jades were admired by the living or used to accompany the deceased, the virtue and beauty of jade had always been associated with the aristocracy in China, forming a unique culture of reverence for jades among the Chinese people.

With respect to function, jades of the Shang and Chou can be categorized into ritual, ornamental, and funerary objects.

Ritual jades consist of the "pi", "ts'ung", "kuei", "chang" and "ping". Jade weapons include the "ch'i", "fu", "yüeh", and "ko", also including the auspicious flat and pointed "kuei", indicating the status of an aristocrat. That is the reason why the "ko" and "pi" as well as "yüeh" and "pi" have often found in "kuei" and "pi" sets by archaeologists.

Jade accessories that were commonly worn include the "huang" (strung with different beads) and ladder-shaped (strung with beads, larval forms, and "ko") ornament sets. Occasionally, there are jade ornaments with dragon-and-phoenix, human-face, and various other animal designs. The jade sets that prevailed among the upper levels of society at the time are called "ornaments of virtue" in historical documents, alluding to the high social status and noble position of the wearer.

The jade sets of facial coverings used in burial were the predecessors of funerary pieces of jade clothing used in the Han dynasty. Moreover, jade fish and silkworms were either strung together for funerals or placed in the mouth of the deceased. All these jade objects demonstrate the ancient reverence for the virtue associated with jade by the Chinese.

In bronze inscriptions, jade is mentioned mainly for rewards, conferring nobility, formal meetings, tributes, and sacrifices. The jades mentioned in inscriptions on the Hsien-chi "kuei", Sung "ting", Shih-sung "kuei", and Mao-kung "ting" bronze vessels reveal that the aristocracy employed a ritual system in which jade and silk played crucial roles and that the virtue of a true gentleman was likened to the resilient purity of jade.

Jade pendants set Western Chou Dynasty ca. 11th century to 771 B.C.E.

Fish-shaped jade pendant Western Chou Dynasty, ca. 11th century to 771 B.C.E.

Eternal Mandate

The ancient "Book of Poetry" states, "Although Chou is an old state, its mandate persists like new."

The Chou people established a new kingdom on the basis of its family regulations and distribution of feudal titles.

The bronzes of the early Western Chou inherited the artistic styles from the late Shang, but they gradually changed and were completely different by the middle Chou. In the early Western Chou, a host of new vessels, shapes, and designs appeared. The form and style of writing in the inscriptions on bronzes was also distinct from those of earlier stages. During the late Western Chou, the number of feudal states making their own bronze vessels increased, leading to the emergence of regional styles in the Eastern Chou. New designs of large curled-tail phoenixes and tile patterning developed in the middle Western Chou. In the late Western Chou, "t'ao-t'ieh" mask patterns were transformed to yield new curved-hook, horizontal-scale, and descending-scale designs. During this period, the "chüeh", "chia", and "ku" wine vessels disappeared as the "kuei", "fu", "hsü", and "p'u" food containers increased in number, a change denoting the Chou concern for food in its new mandate for governing the land.

Chao you Early Western Chou Dynasty ca. 11th to 10th century B.C.E.

Tsu-i tsun Early Western Chou Dynasty ca. 11th to 10th century B.C.E.

The Richness of Chou Culture

Polished bronze has a golden hue, which is why the term for inscriptions on bronzes is known in Chinese as "chin wen" (literally "golden writing"), an important characteristic of Chinese bronzes.

Besides the themes of bronze inscriptions dealing with the worship of ancestors and wishes for descendants to treasure the vessels, other texts cast on bronzes provide first-hand material on war records, dowry and arranged marriages, mandates and ceremonies, cessions of land and treaties, as well as admonitions and awards. These offer actual records and the language of the period, like an unadulterated original version of the ancient "Book of Documents" opened before one's eyes. These historical documents from the ancients are all included in these inscriptions. While reading "chin wen", one can almost feel the presence of the ancients and hear them communicating.

Bronze inscriptions also reveal the high art of writing at the time, even though the characters have undergone transformation from being written down initially to their engraving on mold pieces and casting in bronze. The writing style was bold and sturdy from the Shang to early Chou period. It then became more orderly in the middle Western Chou. During the late Western Chou and early Spring and Autumn period (ca. 770~671 B.C.E.), it become rounded and delicate in the form of large seal script. Bronzes with long inscriptions increased during the middle and late Western Chou, attesting to the richness and prosperity of Chou as manifested in its bronze wares.

Mao Kong Ding Late Western Chou Dynasty ca. 9th century to 771 B.C.E. ‧Mao Kong Ding moved to exhibition "The Bell and Cauldron Inscriptions—A Feast of Chinese Characters : the Origin and Development" in gallery 301 on December 31, 2009.

San p'an Late Western Chou Dynasty ca. 9th century to 771 B.C.E.

Hegemons and Warlords

In the Eastern Chou period, the royal power of the Chou court declined along with its art and rituals. In the political realm, groups of hegemons contended with each other, whereby the strong trampled the weak and the many crushed the few. With respect to rites, increasingly extravagant and excessive funerals appeared, overstepping rightful places in society and ignoring the inherited placement of nobility. Aristocrats competed with one another and out of the contest emerged technical innovation and artistic originality in the works produced under their patronage.

Art and rituals gradually moved from the provenance of kings to that of lords and nobles, and eventually even to that of officers of high rank. This gave rise to increasing developments in ritual and musical bronze instruments, vehicles and weapons of war, seals, royal seals and currencies, and objects of pottery, bone, and jade.

However, underlying this evolution of material culture was a spiritual one, in which various philosophers and authors were engaged in eager debate. Confucianism and Taoism were founded at this time, and the splendid spiritual culture that arose echoed the pluralistic and versatile objects used at the time.

The spread of knowledge also stimulated an increasing social consciousness among the people along with the themes dealing with realism. This turbulent era of political chaos, with five hegemons and seven warlords dominating the land, was shaped in spirit and material by both the extravagance of the aristocracy and the simplicity of ordinary people.

Chien with bands of animal design Warring States Period ca. 5th to 3th century B.C.E.

A set of bells of Tzu-fan chime (8 pieces in total) Middle Spring & Autumn Period ca. 8th to 5th century B.C.E.

Golden Glittering

Back in the Shang dynasty, craftsmen had already fully mastered the technique of attaching jade, minerals, or other metals to newly cast golden bronzes, creating a glittering effect. In the wake of developments in bronze-casting techniques starting in the late Western Chou, new works of art with a variety of materials were created.

From the piece-mold method of the Shang to the lost-wax technique of the Eastern Chou, bronze craftsmanship grew increasingly sophisticated and mass production was made possible. For example, the techniques of inlaid copper and turquoise, gold and silver filigree, and gilding, combined with coiled-snake and coiled-dragon designs popular at the time, pushed the art of bronze decoration to new heights.

Outstanding works of art were created by designated craftsmen and workshops. Certain weapons were even carved with the names of their manufacturers. Neatly done inscriptions not only reveal the beauty of writing from different regions, they also provide indirect evidence of the advent of iron tools for such carving needs. The Bronze Age thus gradually drew to a close.

Hu vessel with hunting scene design Early Warring States Period ca. 5th to 3th century B.C.E.

A Multicultural Flair

Various kinds of interchange between the Chinese and other tribes around the Central Plains heartland go back to the Shang dynasty. Under such influences, bronzes emerged with their own lively shapes and unique forms of decoration.

This multicultural flair lasted throughout the late Shang, Western Chou, and the Spring and Autumn and Warring States (ca. 475~221 B.C.E.) period. As cultures varied from tribe to tribe, each constructed its own "dialect" in bronze with individual styles and characteristics. These societies were scattered throughout the North (Hopeh, Inner Mongolia, Ning-hsia, Tung-pei), Pa-shu (Szechwan), Tien (Yünnan), Hunan, and Kwangtung and Kwangsi. Some of these bronzes were influenced by the styles of the Central Plains via exchange, while others remained purely on their own, reflecting individual regional styles.

In the study of ancient societies, the cultural legacy of bronzes certainly plays an important role.

Lei jar with sheep's head, lozenge and nipple design Late Shang Dynasty ca. 13th to 11th century B.C.E.

Square lei with animal and owl mask design Late Shang Dynasty ca. 13th to 11thcentury B.C.E.

Remnants of the Empire

The Ch'in people were originally from China's western frontiers and rose to power after the early Spring and Autumn period. Established on the old site of the Chou dynasty, the area around Kuan-chung in Shensi, the Ch'in was heavily influenced by Western Chou culture and thus able to preserve their traditional bronze styles and writing forms.

The individual style of the Ch'in gradually took shape after the middle of the Spring and Autumn period. However, the extent of change was small when compared to that of the other six states at the time.

At the end of the Warring States period, the Ch'in had succeeded in uniting all the states. As a result, the garlic-head vase unique to the Ch'in grew in popularity. A monumental stele with an inscribed imperial mandate recorded the standardization of lengths, capacities, and weights throughout the country. However, like the imperial seals of Ch'in, they vanished in the ashes of the empire shortly thereafter.

Elliptical Liang measure Ch'in Dynasty ca. 221-207 B.C.E.

Bronze seal cast with "Fu-ying-sui" Ch'in Dynasty ca. 221 to 207 B.C.E.